LXD container on a single host is just like "chroot on steroids". LXD's main goal is to provide an experience that is similar to virtual machines and hypervisors excluding the hardware virtualization technique. My previous port "Layman's Guide for LXD - Canonicals OpenSource Container Hypervisor [Part-I]" provides an introduction to containers and LXD.
This article will be based mostly on implementing and practising various tasks related to LXD. For beginners who are unfamiliar with containers can refer my previous post. And those who already have a rough idea on containers and LXD, this post will help in learning the configuration and management of LXD.
LXD COMPONENTS
Below mentioned are the main components of LXD.- lxd (system-wide daemon)
- lxc (command line client)
- nova-compute-lxd (Openstack Nova plugin)
- rootfs (root filesystem)
- lxcfs (FUSE filesystem)
WORKING
In order to understand how containers can fit into your requirement, you need to understand the basic working of containers.
A container is basically a Linux process that thinks that it is the only process running and it knows only those things that it is told to know about. When assigned an IP address it behaves like an independent and isolated virtual machine running on the host kernel identifiable across the network. A running container shares the resources in a dynamic and cooperative way.
LXD like any other container shares the host kernel. What makes LXD as an OS container is the /sbin/init process - "the mother of all processes". When LXD container starts, by default the /sbin/init process in the container starts to spawn other processes in the container's process space. This makes LXD container look like an isolated machine. Any system calls and device are handled by the host kernel only.
FEATURES
Among all features of LXD listed in my previous post, I shall go ahead an briefly explain some of them.
Snapshots
A container snapshot is similar to a container except that it cannot be modified but can only be renamed, restored and destroyed. Snapshot combined with CRIU help us to take stateful snapshots of running containers and the ability to rollback cpu / memory state to the point when snapshot was taken.
Images
Containers must be created using images. Each container image contains an image / copy of Linux filesystem. Hence, containers are image based due to which they are very lightweight and compact. LXD uses these pre-built filesystem images that come from remote image servers to create containers. Remote images are updated automatically and are cached locally by the LXD daemon for a default period of 10 days after they expire. These remote images can also be synced.
By default, LXD come pre-configured with three remote image servers that can be accessed over internet.
- ubuntu: provides stable Ubuntu images.
- ubuntu-daily: provides daily builds of Ubuntu.
- images: provides images for number of Linux distributions using upstream LXC templates. This is a community run image server.
The "images:" remote server uses LXC protocol whereas ubuntu: and ubuntu-daily: remote image servers use simplestreams protocol. A simplestreams protocol is read-only, image-only protocol to get image information and import images from public image servers. It uses JSON to describe a list of products and files related to those products. It is used by various other tools like Openstack, Juju, MaaS to find, download and mirror system images.
Profiles
Profiles are just like templates, where we can define various container related configurations and devices. These configurations can finally be applied to a number of containers at a time. A particular container can be set multiple profiles. The latest applied profile configuration overrides the identical parameters.
By default, LXD comes pre-configured with two profiles:
- default: This profile is automatically applied to all freshly created containers by default, unless an alternate profile or list of profiles is provided by the user. This profile defines eth0 network device for the container.
- docker: This profiles enables container nesting, few devices and loads required kernel modules to allow running docker containers on top of LXD.
Remote Mechanism
Remote mechanism helps in interacting with the remote image servers and LXD servers to perform various activities like copying and moving of containers between multiple LXD servers using command line client.
LXD command line client comes with following pre-configured remotes:
- local: This is a default remote which talks to LXD daemon over UNIX socket.
- ubuntu: Image server that provides stable Ubuntu images.
- ubuntu-daily: Image server that provides daily builds of Ubuntu.
- images: This domain hosts a public image server (images.linuxcontainers.org) for use by LXC and LXD.
Security
What makes LXD user-friendly is it's use of new configuration language that abstracts the background activity required for admin related tasks performed by an administrator. For example, attaching a host device to the container without looking for it's major and minor numbers. While designing LXD utmost care was taken to make it as secure as possible for multiple Linux distributions to run inside it. The main security features provided by LXC library are as follows:
- Kernel namespace: Provides isolation machanism to the containers.
- Seccomp: Provides filtering mechanism to filter potentially dangerous system calls.
- AppArmour: Provides restrictions for cross-container communications like mounts, file access, sockets, ptrace, etc.
- Capabilities: Provides capability to prevent containers from loading kernel modules, like modifying system time.
- CGroups: Provides resource usage restrictions.
Rest API
LXD 2.0 comes with 1.0 stable API. Rest API provides the only communication channel between the LXD client and daemon.
LXD Project API Clients
Command Line Client
LXD command line client provides a good user-friendly interface for the users to manage and use LXD containers. But it might be impossible to manage thousands of containers on multiple LXD servers using this command line client. In such cases OpenStack provides a plugin "nova-lxd" to manager LXD containers just like any virtual machine.
INSTALLATION
Installing and implementing LXD is pretty simple on Ubuntu. I am using Ubuntu 16.04 Desktop for LXD installation and testing. Ubuntu 16.04 Server comes pre-installed with LXD 2.0 and Docker 1.10 and can also be very easily installed on desktops.
Installing LXD on Ubuntu 16.04 Desktop
$ sudo apt-get install lxd lxd-* criu python-setuptools zfsutils-linux bridge-utils
The above command will install lxd, lxd-client and lxd-tools packages. One can verify that the above packages are installed by running the below command.
$ sudo dpkg -l | grep lxd
Before the installation exits, it will display a message that a default LXD bridge "lxdbr0" is also provided unconfigured with the LXD package. The lxdbr0 bridge is used for routing the traffic to the containers either through proxied HTTP or SSH for user convenience. Earlier versions LXD used lxcbr0 as default bridge, but now LXD is gradually stopping it's dependency upon LXC. Using the below command one can exclusively configure lxdbr0 bridge.
$ sudo dpkg-reconfigure -p medium lxd
INITIALIZATION
Command line tool can be used for LXD to configure all of LXD and it's components like filesystem and bridge. The "lxd init" tool helps to interactively configure various LXD component and their functions.
$ sudo lxd init
Canonical recommends to use ZFS filesystem for LXD. ZFS supports per-container disk quotas, snapshot / restore, live migration, instant container creation like advanced features. LXD also supports other filesystems such as btrfs, lvm and a simple directory.
CONTAINER MANAGEMENT
LXD provides a very user-friendly command line interface to manage containers. One can perform activities like create, delete, copy, restart, snapshot, restore like many other activities to manage the containers.
Creating a container with the below shown command is very easy, it will create a container with best supported Ubuntu image from ubuntu: image server, set a random name and start it.
$ lxc launch ubuntu:
Creating a container using latest, stable image of Ubuntu 12.04, set a random name and start it.
$ lxc launch ubuntu:12.04
Creating a container using latest, stable image of Ubuntu 16.04, set name "container1" and start it.
$ lxc launch ubuntu:16.04 container0
To create a container using CentOS 7 64-bit image, set name "container2" and start it, we first have to search the "images:" remote image server and copy the required alias name.
$ lxc image list images: | grep centos | grep amd
$ lxc launch images:centos/7/amd64 container1
Creating a container using OpenSuSE 13.2 64-bit image, set name "container3" without starting it.
$ lxc init images:opensuse/13.2/amd64 container2
Remote image server "ubuntu-daily" can be used to create a container using latest
development release of Ubuntu.
Listing containers
$ lxc list
Query detailed information of a particular container
$ lxc info container1
Start, stop, stop forcibly and restart containers
$ lxc start container1
$ lxc stop container1
$ lxc stop container1 --force
$ lxc restart container1
Stateful stop
Containers start from scratch after a reboot. To make the changes persistent across reboots, a container needs to be stopped in a stateful state. With the help of CRIU, the container state is written to the disk before shutting down. Next time the container starts, it restores the state previously written to disk.
$ lxc stop container1 --stateful
Pause containers
Paused containers do not use CPU but still are visible and continue using memory.
$ lxc pause container1
Deletion and forceful deletion of containers
$ lxc delete container1
$ lxc delete container1 --force
Renaming Containers
Just like the Linux move command renames a particular file or directory, similarly the containers can also be renamed. A running container cannot be renamed. Renaming a container doesnot change it's MAC address.
$ lxc move container1 new-container
Configuring Containers
Container settings like controlling container startup, including resource limitations and device pass-through options can be altered on live containers. LXD supports varioius devices like disk devices (physical disk, partition, block/character device), network devices (physical interface, bridged, macvlan, p2p) and none. None is used to stop inheritance of devices from profiles.
Profiles
Profiles store the container configuration. Any number of profiles can be applied to a container, but these profiles are applied in the order they are specified. Hence, always the last profile overrides the previous one. By default, LXD is preconfigured with "default" profile which comes with one network device connected to LXD's default bridge "lxdbr0". Any new container that is created has "default" profile set.
Listing profiles
$ lxc profile list
Viewing default profile content
$ lxc profile show default
Editing default profile
$ lxc profile edit default
Applying a list of profiles to a container
$ lxc profile apply container1 <profile1> <profile2> <profile3> ...
Editing the configuration of a single container
$ lxc config edit container1
Adding a network device to container1
$ lxc config device add container eth1 nic nictype=bridged parent=lxcbr0
Listing the device configuration of container1
$ lxc config device list container1
Viewing container1 configuration
$ lxc config show container1
Above listed are a few examples of basic commands in use. There are many more options that can be used with these commands. A complete list of configuration parameters is mentioned here.
Executing Commands
Commands executed through LXD will always run as the container's root user.
Getting a shell inside the container
$ lxc exec container1 bash
File Transfers
LXD can directly read / write in the container's filesystem.
Pulling a file from container1
$ lxc file pull container1 /etc/redhat-release ~
Reading a file from container1
$ lxc file pull container1 /etc/redhat-release -
Pushing a file to container1
$ lxc file push /etc/myfile container1/
Editing a file on container1
$ lxc file edit container1/etc/hosts
SNAPSHOT MANAGEMENT
Snapshots help in preserving the point in time running state of containers including container's filesystem, devices and configuration, if --stateful flag is used. A stateful snapshot can only be taken on a running container, where stateless snapshot can be taken on stopped containers.
Creating container1 stateless snapshot
$ lxc snapshot container1
Creating container1 stateful snapshot with name c1s1
$ lxc snapshot container1 --stateful c1s1
Listing snapshots
Number of snapshots created per container can be listed using below mentioned command.
$ lxc list
A detailed snapshot information related to container1 like snapshot name, stateless / stateful can be obtained by executing below command.
$ lxc info container1
Restoring snapshot
$ lxc restore container1 c1s1
Renaming snapshot
$ lxc move container1/c1s1 container1/c1s1-new\
Creating a container using snapshot
$ lxc copy container1/c1s1 container-c1s1
Deleting snapshot
$ lxc delete container1/c1s1
Cloning
Cloning or copying a container is a lot faster process to create containers if the requirement permits so. Cloning a container resets the MAC address for the cloned container and does not copy the snapshots of parent container.
$ lxc copy container1 container1-copy
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
LXD allows an efficient way to dynamically manage the resources like setting memory quotas, limiting CPU, I/O priorities and limiting disk usage. Resource allocation can be done on per container basis as well as globally through profiles. All limits can be configured in live environments where they can take effect immediately. In the below example, first command defines the limit on per container basis whereas the second sets the limits globally using profiles.
$ lxc config set <container> <key> <value>
$ lxc profile set <profile> <key> <value>
Disk Limits
Unlike virtual machines containers don't reserve resources but allow us to limit the resources. Currently disk limits can be implemented only if ZFS or btrfs filesystems are in use.
CPU Limits
CPU limits can be configured using the following ways.
- Limiting number of CPUs: Assigning only a particular number of CPUs, restricts LXD to use specified number of CPUs and not more than that. LXD load balances the workload among those number of CPUs as the containers start and stop. For example, we can allow LXD to use only 4 cores and it will load balance between them as per the requirement.
- Limiting to particular set of CPUs: Assigning only particular cores to be used by the containers. Load balance does not work here. For example, we can allow only cores 5, 7 and 8 to be used by the containers on a server.
Pinning cpu core ranges
$ lxc config set container1 limits.cpu 0-2,7,8
- Limiting to CPU usage percent: Containers can be limited to use only a particular percent of CPU time when under load even though containers can see all the cores. For example, a container can run freely when the system is not busy, but LXD can be configured to limit the CPU usage to 40% when there are a number of containers running.
- Limiting CPU time: As in previous case, the containers can be limited to use particular CPU time even though the system is idle and they can see all the cores. For example, we can limit the containers to use only 50ms out of every 200ms interval of CPU time.
The first two properties can be configured with last two to achieve a more complicated CPU resource allocation. For example, LXD makes it possible to limit 4 processors to use only 50ms of CPU time. We can also prioritize the usage in case there is a tiff between containers for a particular resource. In below example we set a priority of 50, if specified 0 it will provide least priority to the container among all.
$ lxc config set container1 limits.cpu.priority 50
Below command will help to verify the above set parameters.
$ lxc exec container1 -- cat /proc/cpuinfo | grep ^process
Memory Limits
LXD can also limit memory usage in various ways that are pretty simple to use.
- Limiting memory to use particular size of RAM. For example, limiting containers to use only 512MB of RAM.
- Limiting memory to use particular percent of RAM. For example, limiting containers to use only 40% of total RAM.
- Limiting swap usage: A container can be configured to turn on / off swap device usage. We can also configure a container to swap out memory to the disk first on priority basis. By default swap is enabled for all containers.
- Setting soft limits: Memory limits are hard by default. We can configure soft limits so that a container can enjoy full worth of memory as long as the system is idle. As soon as there is something that is important that has to be run on the system, a container cannot allocate anything until it is in it's soft limit.
Network I/O Limits
There are two types of network limits that can be applied to containers.- Network interface limits: The "bridged" and "p2p" type of interfaces can be allocated max bit/s limits.
$ lxc config device set container1 eth0 limits.egress 100Mbit
- Global network limits: It prioritizes the usage if the container accessing the network interface is saturated with network traffic.
Block I/O Limits
Either ZFS or btrfs filesystem is required to set disk limits.
$ lxc config device set container1 root size 30GB
Limiting the root device speed
$ lxc config device set container1 root limits.read 40MB
$ lxc config device set container1 root limits.write 20MB
Limiting root device IOps
$ lxc config device set container1 root limits.read 30Iops
$ lxc config device set container1 root limits.write 20Iops
Assigning priority to container1 for disk activity
$ lxc config device set container1 limits.disk.priority 50
To monitor the current resource usage (memory, disk & network) by container1
$ lxc info container1
Sharing a directory in the host machine with a container
$ lxc config device add shared-path path=<destination-directory-on-container> source=<source-directory-on-container>
$ lxc config set core.https_address [::]
$ lxc config set core.trust_password <some-password>
$ lxc config device set container1 root size 30GB
Limiting the root device speed
$ lxc config device set container1 root limits.read 40MB
$ lxc config device set container1 root limits.write 20MB
Limiting root device IOps
$ lxc config device set container1 root limits.read 30Iops
$ lxc config device set container1 root limits.write 20Iops
Assigning priority to container1 for disk activity
$ lxc config device set container1 limits.disk.priority 50
To monitor the current resource usage (memory, disk & network) by container1
$ lxc info container1
Sharing a directory in the host machine with a container
$ lxc config device add shared-path path=<destination-directory-on-container> source=<source-directory-on-container>
NETWORK MANAGEMENT
By default, LXD does not listen to the network. To make it listen to the network following parameters can be set:$ lxc config set core.https_address [::]
$ lxc config set core.trust_password <some-password>
First parameter tells the LXD to bind all addresses on port 8443. Second parameter creates a trust password to contact that server remotely. These are set to make communication between multiple LXD hosts. Any LXD host can add this LXD server using below command.
$ lxc remote add lxdserver1 <IP-Address>
Doing so will prompt for a password that we had set earlier. One can now communicate with the LXD server and access the containers. For example, below command will update the OS in container "container1" on LXD server "server1".
$ lxc exec lxdserver1:container1 --yum update
Proxy Configuration
Setups requiring HTTP(s) to reach out to the outside world can set the below configuration.
$ lxc config set core.prox_http <proxy-address>
$ lxc config set core.prox_https <proxy-address>
$ lxc config set core.prox_ignore_hosts <local-image-server>
Any communication initiated by LXD will use the proxy server except for the local image server.
IMAGE MANAGEMENT
When a container is created from a remote image, LXD downloads the image by pulling its full hash, short hash or alias into it's image store, marks it as cached and records it's origin.Importing Images
From Remote Image Servers to Local Image Store
LXD can simply cache the image locally by copying the remote image into the local image store. This process will not create a container from it. Below example will simply copy the Ubuntu 14.04 image into the local image store and create a filesystem for it.
$ lxc image copy ubuntu:14.04 local
We can also provide an alias name for the fingerprint that will be generated for the new image. Specifying alias name is an easy way to remember the image.
$ lxc image copy ubuntu:14.04 local: --alias ubuntu1404
It is also possible to use the alias that are already set on the remote image server. LXD can also keep the local image updated just like the images that are cached by specifying the "--auto-update" flag while importing the image.
$ lxc image copy images:centos/6/amd64 local: --copy-aliases --auto-update
Later we can create a container using these local images.
$ lxc launch centos/6/amd64 c2-centos6
From Tarballs to Local Image Store
Alternatively, containers can also be made from images that are created using tarballs. These tarballs can be downloaded from linuxcontainers.org. There we can find one LXD metadata tarball and filesystem image tarball. The below example will import an image using both tarballs and assign an alias "imported-ubuntu".
$ lxc image import meta.tar.xz rootfs.tar.xz --alias imported-ubuntu
From URL to Local Image Store
LXD also facilitates importing of images from a local webserver in order to create containers. Images can be pulled using their LXD-image-URL and ultimately get stored in the image store.
$ lxc image import http://imageserver.org/lxd/images --alias opensuse132-amd64
Exporting Images
The images of running containers stored in local image store can also be exported to tarballs.
$ lxc image export <fingerprint / alias>
Exporting images creates two tarballs: metadata tarball containing the metadata bits that LXD uses and filesystem tarball containing the root filesystem to bootstrap new containers.
Creating & Publishing Images
- Creating Images using Containers
$ lxc publish container1 --alias new-c1s1
A snapshot of a container can also be used to create images.
$ lxc publish container1/c1s1 --alias new-snap-image
- Creating Images Manually
2. Make a compressed tarball of the generated filesystem.
3. Write a metadata yaml file for the container.
4. Make a tarball of metadata.yaml file.
Sample metadata.yaml file
architecture: "i686"
creation_date: 1458040200
properties:
architecture: "i686"
description: "Ubuntu 12.04 LTS server (20160315)"
os: "ubuntu"
release: "precise"
templates:
/var/lib/cloud/seed/nocloud-net/meta-data:
when:
- start
template: cloud-init-meta.tpl
/var/lib/cloud/seed/nocloud-net/user-data:
when:
- start
template: cloud-init-user.tpl
properties:
default: |
#cloud-config
{}
/var/lib/cloud/seed/nocloud-net/vendor-data:
when:
- start
template: cloud-init-vendor.tpl
properties:
default: |
#cloud-config
{}
/etc/init/console.override:
when:
- create
template: upstart-override.tpl
/etc/init/tty1.override:
when:
- create
template: upstart-override.tpl
/etc/init/tty2.override:
when:
- create
template: upstart-override.tpl
/etc/init/tty3.override:
when:
- create
template: upstart-override.tpl
/etc/init/tty4.override:
when:
- create
template: upstart-override.tpl
5. Import both the tarballs as LXD images.
$ lxc image import <rootfs.tar.gz> <meta.tar.gz> --alias imported-container
LXD is very likely going to deprecate the lxd-images import functionality for LXD. The image servers are much more efficient for this task.
1. Bind all addresses on port 8443 to enable remote connections to the LXD daemon.
$ lxc config set core.https_address "[::]:8443"
2. Add public image server in the client machines.
$ lxc remote add <public-image-server> <IP-Address> --public
Adding a remote server as public provides an authentication-less connection between client and server. Still, the images that are marked as private in public image server cannot be accessed by the client. Images can be marked as public / private using "lxc image edit" command described above in previous sections.
Listing available remote image servers
$ lxc remote list
List images in images: remote server
$ lxc image list images:
List images using filters
$ lxc image list amd64
$ lxc image list os=ubuntu
Get detailed information of an image
$ lxc image info ubuntu
Editing images
We can edit images with parameters like "autoupdate" or "public".
$ lxc image edit container1
Deleting images
$ lxc image delete <fingerprint / alias>
By default, after a period of 10 days the image gets removed automatically and also every 6 hours by default LXD daemon looks out for new updates and automatically updates the images that are cached locally. Below mentioned commands with relevant parameters help to configure and tune the above mentioned default properties.
$ lxc config set images.remote_cache_expiry <no-of-days>
$ lxc config set images.auto_update_interval <no-of-hours>
$ lxc config set images.auto_update_cached <false>
The last parameter automatically updates only those images that have a flag "--auto-update" set and not all the images that are cached.
Ubuntu's official documentation on LXD
LinuxContainers.org
TAGS: INTRODUCTION TO LXD BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO LINUX CONTAINERS OPENSOURCE SYSTEM CONTAINERS
List images in images: remote server
$ lxc image list images:
List images using filters
$ lxc image list amd64
$ lxc image list os=ubuntu
Get detailed information of an image
$ lxc image info ubuntu
Editing images
We can edit images with parameters like "autoupdate" or "public".
$ lxc image edit container1
Deleting images
$ lxc image delete <fingerprint / alias>
By default, after a period of 10 days the image gets removed automatically and also every 6 hours by default LXD daemon looks out for new updates and automatically updates the images that are cached locally. Below mentioned commands with relevant parameters help to configure and tune the above mentioned default properties.
$ lxc config set images.remote_cache_expiry <no-of-days>
$ lxc config set images.auto_update_interval <no-of-hours>
$ lxc config set images.auto_update_cached <false>
The last parameter automatically updates only those images that have a flag "--auto-update" set and not all the images that are cached.
USE CASES
Suppose you are a developer who is working on a project and you have built some shiny new application / stack / language which you do not trust much or want to run a database which you do not want to be installed on the system and keep running all the time except when you are working on the project, completely isolated on your development server. For multiple container environments it can be used for various other uses like load balancing. LXD is surely the best bet.CONCLUSION
LXD as a OS container with it's unique features like complete isolation, light-weight, fast deployment and very user-friendly interface is very cool and will surely make you to give it a try.SOURCES
Stephane Graber's blog post series on LXD 2.0Ubuntu's official documentation on LXD
LinuxContainers.org
TAGS: INTRODUCTION TO LXD BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO LINUX CONTAINERS OPENSOURCE SYSTEM CONTAINERS
